Aztec

The Aztecs

The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, was built on an island in the lake. The Aztec Indians had already built one of the most advanced civilizations in the western hemisphere by the time Columbus made his first voyage to the Americas. Archaeologists believe that the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan may have had a population of over 200,000. This was larger than any city in Spain or England during the same time.

Mythology tells that the Aztecs began as wandering tribes in the north or northwest part of Mexico. This territory, called Aztlan, is the source of the name Aztec. Today we refer to the people as Aztecs, but they called themselves Mexica or Tenochca. The ancient tribes wandered for many years. In the 1200s they began to settle in the Valley of Mexico, which is in the central part of the country. The area rises about 7,500 feet above sea level. It is surround by tropical rain forests, but the high altitude gave the region a mild climate.

Nahuatl was the language spoken by the Aztecs. Many words we use today came from this ancient language. Aztec words include Acapulco, Mexico, avocado, chocolate, and tomato. The Aztecs developed a form of picture writing. Some pictures represented ideas; other pictures stood for sounds. They did not develop an alphabet, so their writing was limited in what it could express.

The Aztecs soon founded their greatest city, Tenochtitlan, on an island in the Lake Texcoco. This is the site of the Mexico City, the modern capital of Mexico.

By the early 1400s, the Aztecs had gained control of their region and established a number of city-states. Each city-state had its own government and distinct culture. The three major city-states-Tenochtitian, Texaco, and Tiatelolco-formed an alliance that became the Aztec empire. At one time 489 cities paid tribute and taxes to the empire.

A council of nobles always chose the emperor from members of the royal family. The greatest emperor, Montezuma 1, ruled from 1440 to 1468/9. His name is also spelled Moctezuma and Motecuhzoma. He expanded the empire from the Atlantic to Pacific coasts and from Central America to what is now Guatemala. His grandson, Montezumall, became emperor in 1502. He ruled when the empire was at its peak.

The Aztecs made no attempt to unify the area they commanded or to change the customs of the conquered peoples. The emperor stationed military units throughout the empire to maintain control. A great noble commanded each army and also served as governor. Most offices were hereditary, but service to the emperor was also a way to obtain a high office.

Aztecs belonged to a large family group called a calpolli, a word that meant "big house." Each calpolli owned a plot of land to meet the needs of its members. In addition to providing necessities for their own members, each calpolli presented the government with part of the harvest as a tribute.

There were four main social classes in Aztec society. The upper-class nobles owned land in addition to the land of their calpolli. The commoners farmed the calpolli land or made crafts and gave tributes to the nobles in return for protection. Serfs who farmed land of the nobles formed the third major class. Slaves were the lowest class. They had either been captives in war, criminals, or citizens who became unable to paytheir debts. Slaves became household servants or worked alongside the serfs in the fields.

Spaniards, under the leadership of Hernando Cortes, invaded Mexico in search of gold. Many of the smaller city-states helped the Spanish destroy the Aztec empire in 1521. They helped the Spanish because they resented paying tributes to the Aztec empire.

The glory of the Aztec empire vanished during the Spanish invasion, but today Aztec designs still have a strong influence on Mexican art, and thousands of modern Mexicans can trace their ancestry to the Aztecs.

Aztec Daily Life

Huetzin woke up an hour before the Sun appeared. He rolled his sleeping mat into a small bundle and put it into the comer of the room. He was still sleepy as he went into the small steam bath attached to his house. He threw some water onto the, hot rocks to make the steam. As the steam subsided, he went outside and dove into the canal that ran along beside the house. He shivered at the  cold water of the canal. Now he was fully awake.

A small house made of adobe brick was home to Huetzin. The house had a roof made of thatched straw. Aztec homes had little furniture. They used woven straw mats that were placed on the dirt floors instead of beds and chairs. The only pieces of furniture Huetzin's family owned were a few chests to hold valuables and kitchen utensils.

Some of the houses were large because many family members lived together. Households included the husband and wife and their unmarried children, as well as other relatives of the husband. The rooms of the house surrounded a patio. The kitchen and eating area was the largest room in the house. The fire was in the middle of the room. Each morning Huetzin's mother would rekindle thefire and begin her chores of preparing the family’s food for the day. She packed a special lunch for Huetzin and his father to eat at the workshop. Huetzin had a pouch filled with food just like the one his father carried. Huetzin carried his own lunch to the workshop. Aztecs expected the children to share in all of the work.

Most of Huetzin's relatives were farmers in the nearby fields, but his father was a craftsman. His father carved jade and other precious stones into small decorations. Every day Huetzin would go to the workshop with his father. His father taught him many things. He learned how to hunt and fish as well as how to use the tools to create beautiful objects to be sold in the market. He also learned the stories of his ancestors from his father.

Huetzin looked forward to his next birthday. Then he could attend the Teipuchcalli. This was a school sponsored by his family's tribe. Both boys and girls attended the Aztec schools. Training at the school included lessons in citizenship, history and tradition, religious ceremonies, and arts and crafts. In addition to these classes, the boys learned about methods of warfare. The girls learned singing and dancing skills. Some students also went to the Calmecac, which was a special school to train priests.

All of the children helped with the household chores. Huetzin's sisters remained at home with their mother. The girls learned cooking, spinning cotton, weaving, and other household skills. The women of the household prepared the meals and made the clothing for the family.

Huetzin and his familywore cotton clothes with some decoration sewn on. His family was wealthy enough to afford cotton. The poorer Aztecs wore cloth made of fibers of the maguey plant. Decoration on clothing indicated the wealth and social rank of the person. Members of the upper class wore colorful and highly embroidered clothing.

Men wore a loincloth wrapped around their hips. Some men also wore cloaks tied over one shoulder. Aztec women wore loose, sleeveless blouses and wraparound skirts. People went barefoot most of the time, but some wore sandals made of leather or woven maguey fibers.

All day, Huetzin helped his father at the workshop. He looked forward to the time when he would be a master stone carver and work alongside his father. He and his father ate lunch with the others at the workshop. That afternoon Huetzin went to the marketplace and helped sell the carvings that had been made during the week.

Huetzin and his father returned home just before sunset. They washed in the canal and then joined the rest of the family for supper. The women served the meal to the men of the household and then ate their own meals separately.

The Aztecs had a variety of food available. Members of the family brought maize (corn), beans, squash, chili peppers, and tomatoes from the fields. The men hunted to provide deer, rabbits, ducks, and geese. The Aztecs raised dogs and turkeys for additional meat.

Corn was the main part of the Aztec diet. Twice daily, the women baked the cornmeal pancake, which the Spanish later called a tortilla. The Aztecs filled the tortillas with other foods much like our tamales and tacos today.

The Aztecs did not have cattle or pigs so they had little fat in their diets. The food was baked or boiled. Since they used many peppers in their cooking, the food was often spicy and hot.

Two special treats at the end of the meal might include chicle-zapoil or chocolate. Chicle came from a gum tree and is the basis for modern-day chewing gum. Chocolate was processed from the cacao bean. It was a delicacy and not served often. Many times the Aztecs flavored their chocolate with vanilla and other spices.

After the meal, all members of the family worked on various chores. Huetzin's father mended tools for tomorrow's work. His uncle repaired a broken planting stick. The women continued working at their looms.

This was Huetzin's favorite part of the day. As they worked in the dim glow of the fire, Huetzin listened to his grandfather tell stories of battles of the old days. Grandfather seemed to like the old days. Huetzin knew many of the stories by heart, but he enjoyed hearing his grandfather tell them again.

Soon it was time for Huetzin to go to bed. He went to his room and unrolled his sleeping mat. He was tired from his busy day, and it was not long before he fell asleep.

Aztec Society

The clan was the basis of all Aztec society and government. Each person was a member of an extended family. The extended family included grandparents, aunts, and uncles, as well as parents, brothers, and sisters. Groups of the extended families joined to form clans. Twenty clans combined to form a tribe.

Calpolli was the Aztec word for a clan. Calpolli came from the Aztec word calli, which meant "house." Although some nobles owned their own land, the calpolli owned most of the land. The clan divided its land among the families.

Each calpolli elected its own officers to run its business. The Calpolli was a true democracy. Most of the important decisions were made by popular vote. Aztec women did not have the right to vote, however.

Aztec tribes met together often to take care of common needs. Each tribe chose a leader to be in the council. The members of the council then chose one of the leaders to be its chief. The chief was in charge of civil and religious affairs. The council enforced the laws of the clan. They also punished wrong doers. The council elected a second chief to be in charge of war matters.

The calpolli expected all of its able-bodied men to fight in any wars. The men considered it an honor in addition to a duty to fight for their clan.

All aspects of its members' lives were governed by the calpolli. At the birth of a child, the parents consulted the calpolli's priest. The priest looked in the book of fate to see if the birth date was lucky. Four days later, the family held a feast to celebrate the birth and give the child a name. During the celebrations, family members showed weapons and tools to baby boys. They showed weaving items and musical instruments to the baby girls.

The Aztecs taught the children in their homes. They taught the boys methods of hunting and fishing or crafts. The women taught the girls spinning, weaving, cooking, and other household duties. At about age 13, the children went to schools operated by their clans. There, the boys learned about weapons and methods of war and the girls learned additional homemaking skills as well as music and dance.

The family arranged for all marriages. The boy and girl involved usually gave their consent to be married. A young person could only marry someone outside the clan. During the wedding ceremonies, the priest tied the cloaks of the bride and groom together. This was a symbol of the joining together of the two. The bride then became a member of her husband's clan.

AZTEC RELIGION

Xochitl had a difficult time falling asleep. The excitement of tomorrow's festival kept her mind occupied until she finally became drowsy. Tomorrow, she would attend Ochpaniztli, the festival of the eleventh month. This celebration honored Tlazolteotl, the earth mother goddess. Each month of the calendar had a festival with music, dancing, processions, and sacrifices.

 The Aztecs worshipped many gods and goddesses. Each village and each occupation had its own patron god. A different god also watched over each day and each division of the day. The people worshipped the various gods and goddesses to attract the good forces of nature and to repel harmful powers.

Just before the Sun rose, distant sounds of the temple drums woke Xochiti. She dressed quickly, and as she went into the main room of the house, she saw that the rest of the family was already awake and making preparations to go to the temple for the festival god of Tenochtitlan of Ochpaniztli. Her mother gave her a basket of corn to place on the temple altar as a tribute to the goddess Tlazolteoti.

Xochitl was glad that her family arrived as soon as they did. Even though it was still early, hundreds of people had arrived and were lining the road leading to the temple. Xochiti's family was still able to find a location that would give them a good view of the procession.

The crowd quieted down as the beat of the drums stopped. Though they were too far away from the temple to hear what was said, Xochiti knew that the priests were now presenting the sacred chants. The chants provided magic to avoid rains at harvest and to celebrate the refreshment of Earth Mother Tlazolteotl. Xochitl knew that the next part of the ceremony would be a human sacrifice to appease the gods.

In this ceremony, a young woman impersonating the goddess of ripe corn would be the sacrifice. This was one of the few Aztec ceremonies that sacrificed a young woman. Usually the victims of the sacrifices were men who were either captives of wars or slaves. Many of the Aztec religious festivals included human sacrifices. The priest cut open the victim's chest and tore out the heart. He then placed the victim's heart on the altar of the god or goddess. In one ceremony to the god Tlaloc, sacrifices even included children. Xochitl's mother had explained the Aztec belief that the blood given in sacrifice gave the gods new strength and energy.

When Xochitl heard the drums and other music begin, she knew it was time for the grand procession. First came the young men of each clan, dressed in their finest ceremonial outfits. Xochiti enjoyed the colorful display of brightly painted clothing and fancy feather work that decorated the clothes. Each clan member also carried a military weapon and shield decorated with the insignia of the clan.

Xochitli watched closely until she recognized her clan's group. Pride filled Xochitl's heart as they passed. She especially enjoyed seeing her uncles and cousins in the procession. She knew that when he was older, her brother would also march with them.

After the last clan passed, groups of warriors weith special rank and privleges passed by. Tow of the special groups, The Knights of teh Eagle and teh Knights of the Jaguar, wore animal skins to represent their mascot. These two groups then staged a mock battle to entertain the crowd.

Teh rest of the festival day was spent visiting friends and feasting. Occasionally other special events provided entertainment and excitement. Other contests and games filled the afternoon. The most important of the games was the tlachti. This was a fast-moving game using a rubber ball. Each team tried to score points y putting the ball through rings on the sides of the playing field.

The festival as over by sunset. Xochitl and her family returned home. After the evening meal, Xochitl went to bed early. she had had a busy and tiring day, but in 20 days she would be ready to celebrate teh next festival.

AZTEC GODS AND GODDESSES

The ancient Aztecs worshipped over 60 gods and goddesses. This is a list of the ancient Aztecs worshipped over 60 gods and goddesses. This is a list of the

NAME                                     DESCRIPTION

TEZCATLIPOCA: Sun god, most powerful of all gods, chief god of the town of Texcoco

HUITZILOPOCHTLI: Sun god and god of war, chief god of the town of Tenochtitlan

TLAZOLTEOTL: Mother of gods, earth goddess

TLALOC: Rain god, most important to the farmers

QUETZALCOATL: God of learning and the priesthood, also god of arts and Crafts

CHICOMECOATL: Goddess of crops

CENETEOTL: God of corn

XIPE TOTEC: God of spring, planting, and re-growth

TONATIUH: A Sun god

MICTLANTECUHLI: God of the dead

XIUHTECUHTLI: Ancient fire god

CHALCHIHUITLICUE: Our Lady of the Turquoise skirt, lakes and rivers

THE AZTEC CALENDAR

The Aztecs, like the Mayas and ancient Egyptians, used two different calendars. The first calendar was similar to the one created by the Mayas and handed down through the ages. It was a lunar calendar based on the phases of the Moon. The lunar calendar had 260 days. The Aztecs divided their calendar into 13 months, each having 20 days. They thought this calendar was magical. The priests used the lunar calendar to decide which days would be used for religious ceremonies and rituals. Priests also used this calendar to decide which days were lucky and should be used for important activities such as planting crops or going into battle.

A number of dots represented the months, and each of the 20 days had a name. Each of the days also had a hieroglyph (picture word). The Aztecs established their second calendar on the movement of the Sun. Similar to our calendar today, it had 365 days based on the time it took the earth to orbit the Sun. They divided their solar calendar into 18 months each containing 20 days. The extra five days were "nothing" days added to the end of each year. The Aztecs thought these five days were unlucky, so they did not give them names. The Aztec stopped all activities during the five "nothing" days. At the end of the five days, they gave a sacrificial victim in tribute to the gods.

Our calendar has centuries using 100-year divisions. Both of the Aztec calendars used 52-year divisions. The Aztecs had a major celebration at the start of each new 52-year cycle. Part of the celebration included the New Fire Ceremony. The priests extinguished the temple's altar fires, and the citizens let their household fires go out. At midnight of the new era, the priest would light a fire on the chest of a sacrificial victim. The people would then light a fire stick from the altar fire and use it to light their home fires.

One of the important artifacts from the Aztecs is the famous calendar stone. Discovered in 1790, the stone is about 12 feet in diameter and weights 20 tons. In the center of the stone is an image of the Sun god Tonatiuh. Other carvings on the stone represent the Aztec days and religious symbols. Aztec priests may have placed the hearts of sacrificial victims on the stone's center during religious ceremonies.

THE CITY OF TENOCHTITLAN

The greatest city of the Aztecs was Tenochtitlan. The early settlers built the village on an island in Lake Texcoco. They chose the island since the lake protected them against attacks from the mainland.

A twin village, Tlaltelolco, was on another island to the north. The natives soon built a bridge between the two villages, but the villages then became rivals. After a short battle, Tenochtitlan defeated and absorbed Tlaltelolco.

As the villages grew into a city, the people needed more land. They dug mud from the lake bottom and piled it into mounds. The city became crisscrossed by canals. Tenoch-titlan reminded the Europeans of Venice. The canals became the major streets of the city. Soon three large earthen causeways linked the city to the mainland. These causeways became the major entrances into the city. The three causeways joined at the great plaza in the center of the city.

Tenochtitlan had four major units. These units had a total of 20 sections. Each clan had its own section of the city that contained the houses and gardens of the clan members. Each clan also had its own temple and school.

The great plaza was in the center of the city. It measured 520 by 600 feet and had over 60 buildings. The most impressive structure in the plaza was the pyramid and double temple to the gods Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc. It was over 200 feet tall.

Four other temples and the sacred ball court were built in the great plaza. Other buildings in the plaza included the home of the priest, the house of a military unit, and the great palace of the ruler Montezuma. A large market place and the now-famous calendar stone were also in the great plaza.

The Spanish first arrived in Tenochtitlan in November 1519. Hernando Cortes led the Spanish invaders. Tenochtitlan amazed them when they entered. One of the men wrote that he thought what he saw was a dream. The population of the city when the Spanish arrived is estimated at between 200,000 and 300,000 people. It was larger than any city in Europe at the time.

Cortes and his men soon defeated the Aztecs, and Tenochtitlan became a Spanish city. It continued to change after the Spanish conquest. In the 1600s the Spanish drained the lake. Today Mexico's capital, Mexico City, lies on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. The Mexican president's palace is on the location that was once Montezuma's palace.

AZTEC ART

Two serpents form her head. She has claws instead of hands and feet. Her skirt consists of many twisting snakes, and she wears a necklace made of human hearts and hands. Coatlicue, the goddess of the earth, stands nine and one-half feet tall. This shocking sight is one of the most famous Aztec sculptures.

The best remaining examples of Aztec art are its architecture and sculpture. Aztec sculpture remains among the most elaborate in the Americas. Almost all Aztec art used religious subjects and themes.

The temple was the most magnificent structure in each Aztec town. It was visible from miles away and stood on the top of huge pyramid structures. Great staircases rose up the sides of the pyramid. The great pyramid at Tenochtitlan had two temples at its peak.

 Most of the sculpture came from decorations of the temple. The sculpture used a variety of subjects. Animals and representations of the gods were favorite subjects. We still can see examples of sculptures of spiders. Some of the sculpture is huge, like the calendar stone weighing over 20 tons, and some is very small and delicate.

The Aztecs used a variety of material for their sculpture. Stone was the most often used material. However, examples of Aztec art remain that were made of wood, jade, turquoise, emerald, and volcanic glass.

The Aztecs also made items of metal. They used metals easily found in nature. They did not know how to use iron or how to mix metals for great strength. Aztec workers used stone instead of metal tools. The craftsmen shaped gold, copper, and some silver into beautiful jewelry and decorations. Most of the Aztec gold treasures no longer exist. After conquering the Aztecs, Cortes and the Spaniards took the gold art works to Europe. The king of Spain had the treasures melted down to reuse the gold.

Aztec craftsmen also made clay pottery. Some of it was plain and for everyday use. The Aztec kitchens contained many clay jars and other utensils. They also created elaborate and brightly colored ritual pottery.

 Aztec women spent much of their time weaving cloth. They dyed, embroidered, and decorated the cloth. The higher a person's social status, the more elaborate the decorations that appeared on his clothing. The Aztecs also excelled at feather weaving. Weavers raised exotic birds in cages to get brightly colored feathers. The weavers attached the feathers to a net to make cloaks, headdresses, and other decorative items. Only one example of Aztec feather weaving survives today. A headdress given by Montezuma to Cortes is preserved in a museum in Vienna.

 Aztec Games

Tiachtli was an Aztec game played on a court .it seems have been similar to a combination of modern basketball and soccer. Tachti became the most important Aztec game. Tlachtli was a ball game similar to a Mayan game named pok-a-tok. Tlachtli began as a sport and later became a ritual game. The Aztecs played it during religious ceremonies. They played the game as entertainment fort he ruler and priests as well as f6r the common people. Sometimes, the Aztecs sacrificed the losers to the gods.

We do not know the rules of the Mayan game, but all large Mayan and Aztec cities had game courts. The Mayan city, Chichen ltza, had seven game courts. The largest court was 545 feet long and 225 feet wide. A basket was at each end of the court. The Mayas decorated the basket as a snake. It was 35 feet high.

 The Aztec courts were similar to the Mayan courts. They were often near the temple areas. The courts were in the shape of a capital "T". They had seats on both sides for viewers. A vertical stone ring was in the middle of the sidewalls. The object of the game was to put the ball through the ring. A team also scored a point if the other team let the ball touch the ground.

Tlachtli used a hard, rubber ball about six inches in diameter. The players wore padding. They could not touch the ball with their hands. The ball could only be moved by the players' hips, knees, legs, and elbows.

 The Aztecs also played board games. The most popular was patolli. It was similar to parcheesi or backgammon. However, we do not know the exact rules of patolli. The Aztecs played it on a cross-shaped design painted on a board or mat. They used beans painted with dots as dice. They used beans or kernels of maize as markers. The object of the game was to move around the board and return to home base. The Aztec often played patolli as a gambling game. The Aztec ruler Montezuma and the Spanish conqueror Cortes may have played patolli while Montezuma was a captive.

AZTEC AGRICULTURE

 Aztec methods of farming were similar to those of the Mayan and lncan tribes. The Aztecs used a pointed stick to plant the crops. One person would make a hole in the ground with the stick. Another person would put the seeds in the hole and then cover the seeds with soil. The Aztecs never invented a plow to turn the earth.

The slash and burn method of agriculture was used by the Aztecs. They chopped down forest areas and left the trees and brush to dry in the heat of the Sun for many days. The farmers then burned the areas to clear them. The ashes of the burnt trees provided fertilizer. The farmers then planted the new crops in the clearings.

Chinampas were the most interesting development of Aztec agriculture. Chinampas were small islands formed in lake and swamp areas. The farmers made them by digging the mud at the bottom of the lake or swamp and piling it into little mounds or islands. The Aztecs then planted crops and gardens on the chinampas. They are sometimes called floating gardens even though they did not really float.

The Aztec farmers also cut terraces into hillsides to create more farmland. They made many canals to help carry water to the fields.

 Corn, called maize by the Indians, was the main crop. The Aztec farmers also grow avocados, as well as many varieties of beans, squash, sweet potatoes, and tomatoes. Different crops came from the lowlands. Major lowland crops included cotton, papayas, rubber, and cacao beans, from which chocolate is made.

 After the harvest, farmers brought the crops to the marketplace in the nearest city. The Aztecs did not use animals or wheeled vehicles to move crops. The men carried everything to the market on their backs. In some of the distant villages, farmers used dugout canoes to move crops over rivers and canals.

The market was in the center of each town. Some of the markets were  very large. The market in the city of Tiateloico was the largest. The Spaniard Hernando Cortes wrote that over 60,000 persons visited the market each day.

The Aztecs, like other Indian tribes, did not use money. They used a barter system. Barter is trading objects rather than buying and selling them. The markets contained many other things for barter. Other items traded included weapons, animals, household goods, rare colorful feathers, and even slaves.

 AZTEC WARFARE

 Warfare was an important part of Aztec life. Every able-bodied Aztec man participated in fighting. The Aztecs believed it was a religious duty to be a warrior.

At the age of about 13, Aztec boys attended a school named the teipuchaiii. At this school, the boys learned how to use weapons and the basics of warfare. Each boy would follow an experienced warrior into battle. It was important for Aztec warriors to take captives. The Aztec honored the men who took many captives.  The successful warriors often received social rank, land, or important offices as their reward.

Aztec warriors used many weapons. The macuahuitl was the most important. It was a sword edged with sharp pieces of obsidian glass. The Aztecs also used bows and arrows, javelins, clubs, and slings.

The warriors carried shields and wore padded cotton armor. They decorated the shield with paint and feathers. They also wore brightly colored feather headdresses. They did not have uniforms. Each warrior dressed as he wished. They often had the sign of their group on their shield. The main warrior groups were the Order of the Eagle, the Order of the Jaguar, and the Order of the Arrows.

Battles did not last long. They did not use animals to carry supplies. The soldiers had to carry all of their supplies, so they did not have enough food and weapons to support a long attack. Most of the fighting was hand-to-hand combat. The first tribe to retreat was the loser.

The Aztecs went to war for two main reasons. They fought to get tribute and the needed supply of sacrificial victims for religious ceremonies.

The tribe that lost the battle had to give the winning tribe gold, jewels, crops, and othervaluable items. Tribute was everything the losing tribe had to give to the winning tribe. Often, the losing tribe paid tribute each year for many years after the battle. Tribute from many defeated tribes helped keep the Aztecs strong and powerful.

The goal of Aztec warfare was to capture rather than kill the enemy. Members of the losing tribe became slaves or sacrifices. Aztec religion demanded many human sacrifices to please the gods.